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Havock Class Destroyer

Havock class destroyer

] Havock and Hornet, the two Havock-class destroyers built for the Royal Navy in 1893, were the first torpedo boat destroyers. The invention of the self-propelled torpedo by Robert Whitehead and Austrian Navy Captain Giovanni Luppis in 1866, combined with the swift, small torpedo boat invented by John Ericsson in the late 19th century posed a threat to battleships: large numbers of torpedo boats could overwhelm a battleship's defenses and sink it, or distract the battleship and make it vulnerable to opposing capital ships. Torpedo boats proved devastatingly effective in the Chilean Civil War of 1891. The defense against torpedo boats was clear: small warships accompanying the fleet that could screen and protect it from attack by torpedo boats. Several European navies developed vessels variously known as torpedo boat "catchers", "hunters" and "destroyers". However, the early designs lacked the range and speed to keep up with the fleet they were supposed to protect. In 1892, the Third Sea Lord, Rear Admiral Jackie Fisher ordered the development of a new design of ships equipped with the then novel water-tube boilers and quick-firing small calibre guns. Six ships of the new design were ordered:
- Havock and Hornet from Yarrow.
- Daring and Decoy from Thorneycroft (the Daring class).
- Ferret and Lynx from Lairds (these and three other ships made up the Banshee class). Havock was launched first, on 12 August 1893. Her sea trials on 28 October 1893 were successful, her top speed indicating that she was capable of keeping up with battleships. However, her bow torpedo tube proved to be useless as the ship would usually outrun her own torpedo. It was absent in later destroyers. Havock and Hornet did not survive to see World War I, being broken up in 1912 and 1909 respectively.

General characteristics


- Displacement: 240 tons
- Speed: 26.78 knots (49.60 km/h)
- Range 3,000 nautical miles (5,600 km)
- Complement: 46
- Armament: 1 x 12 pounder (5 kg) gun; three torpedo tubes (bow tube later removed)

References


- T. D. Manning, The British Destroyer, Putnam, 1961.

External links


- [http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/hms_hornet.htm Havock and Hornet from battleships-cruisers.co.uk] Category:Ship classes Category:Royal Navy destroyers

1893

1893 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 1 - Japan accepts the Gregorian calendar
- January 2 - Introduction by Webb C. Ball of the General Railroad Timepiece Standards in North America: Railroad chronometers
- January 13 - The Independent Labour Party of the UK has its first meeting.
- January 17 - Intervention by the U.S. Marines in Hawaii, resulting in overthrow of government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii
- January 21 - First "performance" of the Cherry sisters in Marion, Iowa. Their neighbors are uncritical and the sisters decide to launch a tour
- February 1 - Thomas A. Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio (West Orange, New Jersey).
- February 21 - Thomas Edison receives two U.S. patents. The first is for a "Cut Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps" and another for a "Stop Device" (No. 491,992-3). Also No. 492,150 for "Process of Coating Conductors for Incandescent Lamps."
- February 23 - Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine
- March 4 - End of term for President of the United States Benjamin Harrison. He is succeeded by Stephen Grover Cleveland.
- March 10 - Côte d'Ivoire becomes a French colony
- March 20 - In Belgium, Adam Worth is sentenced for seven year for robbery (he is released 1897)
- April 8 - First recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania between the Geneva College Covenanters and the New Brighton YMCA.
- May 1 - The 1893 World's Fair, also known as the World's Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, Illinois, USA. The first United States commemorative postage stamps were issued for the Exposition.
- May 5 - Panic of 1893: Crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression.
- May 9 - First public demonstration of Edison's 1 1/2" system of Kinetoscope at the Brooklyn Institute.
- June 6 - Marriage of Prince George, Duke of York and Mary of Teck.
- June 7 Gandhi's first act of civil disobedience.
- June 22 - Flagship Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes - vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with it
- July 6 - The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa was nearly destroyed by a tornado. Seventy-one people were killed and two hundred were injured.
- July 11 - Kokichi Mikimoto develops the method to achieve cultured pearls.
- July 12 - Frederick Jackson Turner gives his famous lecture entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" before the American Historical Association in Chicago
- June 20 - Lizzie Borden acquitted of murder of her father and stepmother
- June 22 – Flagship HMS Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with HMS Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes - vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with it
- August 27 - The Sea Islands Hurricane hits Savannah, Charleston and the Sea Islands; 1000-2000 dead.
- September 11 - Opening meeting of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.
- September 19 - Russian ironclad Rusalka disappears in a storm en route from Tallinn to Helsinki (hulk found July 2003 off Helsinki)
- September 27 - Closing meeting of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.
- October 10 - First car number plates in Paris, France
- October 30 - The 1893 World's Fair, also known as the World Columbian Exposition, closes.
- November 7 - Colorado women are granted the right to vote.

Exact month/day of event unknown


- New Zealand becomes first country in the world to grant women the vote.
- American Council on Alcohol Problems established.
- Global financial panic (Panic of 1893)
- Physicist Wilhelm Wien composes Wien's Law
- France conquers Vietnam.
- General strike in Belgium
- American Temperance University opened.
- Milbank Penitentiary in Britain demolished
- US President Cleveland operated on in secret
- The Wengernalpbahn in Wengen, Switzerland (Canton of Bern) is opened.
- Athletic Club Královské Vinohrady is founded. Later the team was renamed to Sparta Prague
- Anti-Saloon League established in U.S. to promote temperance movement
- Committee of Fifty for the Study of the Liquor Problem established.

Births


- January 5 - Paramahansa Yogananda, Indian guru (d. 1952)
- January 12 - Hermann Göring, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- January 12 - Alfred Rosenberg, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- January 15 - Ivor Novello, Welsh actor and musician (d. 1951)
- January 22 - Conrad Veidt, German actor (d. 1943)
- February 3 - Gaston Julia, French mathematician (d. 1978)
- February 10 - Jimmy Durante, American actor, singer, and comedian (d. 1980)
- February 12 - Omar Bradley, American general (d. 1981)
- February 16 - Katharine Cornell, American actress (d. 1974)
- February 21 - Andrés Segovia, Spanish guitarist (d. 1987)
- March 1 - Mercedes de Acosta, American poet, playwright, costume designer, and socialite (d. 1968)
- March 3 - Beatrice Wood, American artist and ceramicist (d. 1998)
- March 18 - Wilfred Owen, English soldier and poet (d. 1918)
- April 3 - Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943)
- April 9 - Victor Gollancz, British publisher (d. 1967)
- April 12 - Robert Harron, American actor (d. 1920)
- April 23 - Allen Dulles, American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. 1969)
- April 29 - Harold C. Urey, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)
- May 3 - Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, Georgian writer and public benefactor (d. 1975)
- May 23 - Ulysses S. Grant IV, American geologist and paleontologist (d. 1977)
- June 24 - Roy Oliver Disney, brother and business partner of Walter Elias Disney (d. 1971)
- July 25 - Dorothy Dickson, American-born actress and socialite (d. 1995)
- June 26 - Big Bill Broonzy, American blues singer and composer (d. 1958)
- July 3 - Mississippi John Hurt, American musician (d. 1966)
- July 9 - George Geary, English cricketer (d. 1981)
- August 6 - Wright Patman, American politician (d. 1976)
- August 15 - Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and computing pioneer (d. 1950)
- August 22 - Dorothy Parker, American writer (d. 1967)
- August 30 - Huey Long, Louisiana governor and senator (d. 1935)
- September 13 - Larry Shields, American musician (d. 1953)
- September 16 - Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungarian physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
- October 1 - Marianne Brandt, German industrial designer (d. 1983)
- October 9 - Mário de Andrade, Brazilian writer and photographer (d. 1945)
- October 14 - Lillian Gish, American actress (d. 1993)
- October 15 - King Carol II of Romania (d. 1953)
- October 18 - Georges Ohsawa, Japanese founder of Macrobiotics (d. 1966)
- November 3 - Edward Adelbert Doisy, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1986)
- November 8 - Clarence Williams, American jazz musician (d. 1965)
- December 24 - Ruth Chatterton, American actress (d. 1961)
- December 26 - Mao Zedong, Chinese leader (d. 1976)

Exact month/day of birth unknown


- Clement Martyn Doke, South African linguist (d. 1980)
- Berthold Bartosch, Bohemian animator (d. 1968)

Deaths


- January 2 - John Obadiah Westwood, British entomologist
- January 7 - Jožef Stefan, Slovenian physicist, mathematician, and poet (b. 1835)
- January 17 - Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th President of the United States
- January 23 - Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar, U.S. Supreme Court justice
- February 1 - George Henry Sanderson, Mayor of San Francisco
- February 20 - P.G.T. Beauregard, American Confederate general
- March 30 - Jane Sym-Mackenzie, First Lady of Canada
- June 21 - Amasa Leland Stanford, Governor of California
- June 23 - Sir Theophilus Shepstone, South African statesman (b. 1817)
- October 10 - Lip Pike, baseball player
- October 30 - Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, Canadian politician

Marriages


- January 7 - Mary Gish & James Leigh de Guiche
- April 20 - King Ferdinand & Maria Louisa de Bourbon
- May 2 - Marie Eve & August Strindberg
- May 30 - Israël Querido & Janet Sjouwerman
- July 6 - George V & Queen Mary
- December 12 - Rupert Hughes & Agnes Wheeler Hedge Category:1893 ko:1893년 ms:1893 simple:1893 th:พ.ศ. 2436

Destroyer

:This article is about the warship. For other meaning, see destroyer (disambiguation). destroyer (disambiguation) destroyer]] In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet or battle group and defend them against smaller, short-range attackers (originally torpedo boats, later submarines and aircraft). At the beginning of the 21st century, destroyers are the heaviest surface combatants in general use, with only two nations (the United States and Russia) operating cruisers and none operating battleships or battlecruisers.

Genesis of the destroyer

The destroyer originated in Britain and Japan in the last years of the 1880s, and became firmly established after the Chilean Civil War of 1891 and in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). In those conflicts, a new type of ship proved to be devastatingly effective—the swift, small torpedo-boat invented by John Ericsson. These small boats had speed greater than that of the larger ships, and could dash in close to them, loose their torpedoes, and dash away. While normally a small, short-range boat of this sort would be easily destroyed long before getting into range, they could be operated within a fleet with larger ships as long as the fleet was close to base. In this case the defending force had to choose which set of targets to attack: the larger ships which they were built to counter, or the smaller torpedo boats which were charging in to attack. Yet this one-two punch cost almost nothing to the attacker, as the small torpedo boats were very inexpensive. The world's navies recognized the need for a counter weapon and developed the torpedo-boat destroyer. The basic idea was to have a screen of ships that were as fast as the torpedo boats, but armed with guns instead of torpedoes. They would operate at a distance from the main fleet of capital ships to keep the torpedo-boats from ever getting into torpedo firing range. However it was clear even at the time that this concept had problems of its own. The ship would indeed be capable of holding off an attack by torpedo boats (which typically have no guns of their own), but while operating away from the fleet they would be easy targets for any other capital ship. Thus they were often given torpedoes of their own. Another problem was that the torpedo-boats were short ranged and thus easy and cheap to produce. However the destroyers had the problem of needing to operate as a screen for the fleet. This required them to have the speed and range of the battleships, so destroyers were often much larger than the boats they were designed to counter.

First designs

battleships (1887)]] The first effective design of a torpedo-boat destroyer emerged in 1885 with the Japanese Kotaka, a Japanese-designed, but British-built, torpedo-boat with expanded capabilities and performances, which "was the forerunner of torpedo-boat destroyers that appeared a decade later" (Kaigun, David C. Evans). Designed and ordered in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. She was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and four torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots, and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat yet designed. In her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could go beyond a role of coastal defense, and was capable of following larger ships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, "considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer" (Howe). Yarrow shipyards Almost immediately after the order of the Kotaka was placed, Fernando Villaamil of the Spanish Navy also placed an order for a torpedo-boat destroyer in November 1885, with the British builder James and George Thompson, of Clydebank, also nearby the Yarrow shipyards. The ship, named Destructor, was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887, thereby becoming the first torpedo-boat destroyer to be completed. Her displacement was 380 tons, and she was equipped with triple expansion engines generating 3,800 HP, for a maximum speed of 22.6 knots. She was armed with one 90 mm Hontoria cannon, four 57 mm Nordenfeldt cannon, two 37 mm Hotchkiss guns and 3 Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes. Her complement was 60 men. Hotchkiss).]] The next effective design of torpedo boat destroyer, with the range and speed to keep up with battleships, was the Havock class of two ships of the Royal Navy, developed in 1892 under the newly appointed Third Sea Lord Rear Admiral "Jackie" Fisher, and launched in 1893. The Havock had a 240 tons displacement, a speed of 27 knots, and was armed with a single 12-pounder (76 mm) gun, three 6-pounders (57 mm), and three 46 cm torpedo tubes. The torpedo boat destroyer later on took over the role of the smaller torpedo boats, performing torpedo attacks on fleets, such as the devastating Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, and attacks in the Pacific theatre of World War II.

World War I

Torpedo Boat destroyers grew in size and effectiveness in the early part of the 20th century. Innovations such as turbine propulsion, oil-fired rather than coal-fired boilers, and longer ranged "heater" torpedoes led to effective ships being designed by Britain and Germany. The threat evolved by World War I with the perfection of the submarine. In general, the submarine, or U-boat, of the era was nothing more than a submersible torpedo boat. This change allowed the submarine to hide from the guns of the destroyers and close to firing while underwater. This led to an equally rapid destroyer evolution during the war, which was quickly equipped with depth charges and sonar for countering this new threat. At the end of the war the state of the art was represented by the British V and W class destroyer.

Inter War

V and W class destroyer Destroyer construction continued during the inter war period initially with designs evolved from the British V & W Class. A major innovation came with the Japanese Fubuki class destroyers or special type of 1928, which introduced enclosed turrets capable of anti-aircraft fire and the 24-inch (60cm) oxygen fuelled Type 93 torpedo. Most other nations replied with similar larger type ships examples include the US Porter-class destroyer leader and the British Afridi-class destroyer (commonly called "Tribals") The submarine threat had been insufficiently realized, however; while sonar (or ASDIC)was fitted, training in its use was indifferent. Weapons to attack submarines changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in WW1, had made no progress.

World War II

By World War II the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and aircraft had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the fleet destroyers were unequipped for combatting these new targets. They were re-equipped with new anti-aircraft guns, radar, and ahead-throwing ASW weapons, in addition to their existing light guns, depth charges, and torpedoes. By this time the destroyers had become large multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right rather than expendable vessels for the protection of others. This led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized anti-submarine warships by the Royal Navy: corvettes and later frigates, while the US introduced destroyer escorts.

Post War

Some conventional destroyers were completed in the late 1940's and 1950's which built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit Machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the Squid mortar. Examples include the British Daring-class, US Forrest Sherman-class, and the Soviet Kotlin-class destroyers. Some World War II-vintage ships were modernised for anti-submarine warfrare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the US FRAM I programme and the British Type 15 frigate.

The Missile Age

The advent of surface-to-air (SAM) missiles and surface-to-surface (SSM) missiles, such as the Exocet, in the early 1960's changed naval warfare. Guided missile destroyes (DDG in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine and surface threats. Examples include the Soviet Kashin-class, the British County-class, and the American Charles F. Adams-class.

Modern destroyers

Charles F. Adams-class The United States commissioned its first destroyer, USS Bainbridge, Destroyer No. 1, in 1902. In the US Navy, destroyers operate in support of carrier battle groups, surface action groups, amphibious groups and replenishment groups. Destroyers (with a DD hull classification symbol) primarily perform anti-submarine warfare duty while guided missile destroyers (DDGs) are multi-mission (anti-submarine, anti-aircraft, and anti-surface warfare) surface combatants. The relatively-recent addition of cruise missile launchers has greatly expanded the role of the destroyer in strike and land-attack warfare. As the expense of heavier surface combatants has generally removed them from the fleet, destroyer tonnage has grown (a modern Arleigh Burke-class destroyer has the same tonnage as a World War II light cruiser). Arleigh Burke is billed by her builders, the Bath Iron Works, as ton-for-ton the most powerful warship in history. Bath Iron Works destroyer]] One class of destroyers is currently in use by the US Navy: the Arleigh Burke class. The last Spruance class destroyer in service, USS Cushing (DD-985), was decommissioned on September 21, 2005. The Zumwalt class were planned to replace them; on November 1, 2001, the US Navy announced the issuance of a revised Request for Proposal (RFP) for the Future Surface Combatant Program. Formerly known as DD 21, the program will now be called DD(X) to more accurately reflect the program purpose, which is to produce a family of advanced technology surface combatants, not a single ship class. DD(X) is no longer called Zumwalt class, and is much larger than traditional destroyers, being nearly three thousand tons heavier than a Ticonderoga-class cruiser. It will potentially employ advanced weaponry and an all-electric Integrated Power System. Integrated Power System The Royal Navy's first destroyers were the Havock-class destroyers of 1893. The Royal Navy currently operates 8 ships of the Type 42 class. The destroyers (as well as frigates) are, as always, the workhorses of the fleet, the former optimised for air defence and the latter for surface and subsurface warfare. They are equally at home in large task groups or on independent operations which may include sanctions enforcement, humanitarian relief or anti-drug patrols. British destroyers (of recent times) have an average displacement of around 5,000 tonnes, and are armed with a mixture of guns and missiles including 114 mm (4.5 inch) Mk 8 guns, Sea Dart Missiles, 20 mm Close range guns, Vulcan Phalanx close in weapons system (CIWS), anti submarine torpedo tubes. The current Royal Navy destroyers are to be replaced by the new Type 45 Daring Class from 2006 onwards. A class of 12 ships is envisaged, with an entire programme budget of £6 billion. Displacing around 7,200 tons, they will be equipped with the UK variant of the Principal Anti-Air Missile System (PAAMS). Design and construction of the first ships is to be split between BAE Systems and Vosper Thornycroft under the overall project management of BAE systems. Two of the ships will be assembled at Scotstoun, by BAE Systems and the other by Vosper Thornycroft at a new shipbuilding facility at Portsmouth Naval Yard.

See also


- List of destroyer classes
- United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification

References


- "Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941", David C. Evans, Mark R.Peattie, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland ISBN 0870211927
- "The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War", Christopher Howe, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226354857
- "The Atlantic Campaign", Dan van der Vat.
- "DD-963 Spruance-class" http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/dd-963.htm

External links


- [http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/stc0644.htm The Japanese 1887 Kotaka (Japanese)]
- [http://www.historialago.com/av_0110_d_destructor_tribal.htm The Spanish 1886 Destructor (Spanish)] Category:Ship types ko:구축함 ms:Kapal pembinasa ja:駆逐艦

Torpedo

A modern torpedo, historically called a locomotive torpedo, is a self-propelled guided projectile that (after being launched above or below the water surface) operates underwater and is designed to detonate on contact or in proximity to a target. Torpedoes are weapons that may be launched from submarines, surface ships, helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft, unmanned naval mines and naval fortresses fortress They are also used as parts of other weapons; the Mark 46 torpedo used by the United States becomes the warhead section of the ASROC (Anti-Submarine ROCket) and the Captor mine uses a submerged sensor platform that releases a torpedo when a hostile contact is detected.

Etymology

Captor mine The word torpedo comes from the torpedo genus of electric rays in the order Torpediniformes, which in turn comes from the Latin "torpere", to be stiffened or paralyzed. There is no physical resemblance between the ray and the mechanical torpedo. In naval usage, the term "torpedo" was first used by Robert Fulton who used the word for the towed gunpowder charge used by his submarine Nautilus in 1800–1805 to demonstrate that it could sink warships. The term became generally used to refer to tethered naval mines, developed in the American Civil War in the 1860s by Matthew F. Maury, a Confederate Admiral (these are what David Farragut was referring to when he ordered his men to "damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead"). This use of the word to refer to what are now called "mines" lasted until World War I. As self-propelled torpedoes were developed the tethered variety was referred to as "stationary torpedo" and later "mine". The Bangalore Torpedo, invented in 1912, is a cylindrical explosive device on the end of a pipe used to clear minefields and barbed wire. As such it can be considered a land form of the spar torpedo.

History

Bangalore Torpedo.]] Bangalore Torpedo Bangalore Torpedo with torpedo nets.]] The first torpedoes driven at the target were spar torpedoes – the explosive device was on the end of a spar up to 40 feet long projecting forward under the water from the attacking vessel. When driven up against the enemy and detonated a hole would be caused below the water line. These devices were used in the American Civil War. Attempts had been made to develop unpowered but directable towed torpedoes, such as the torpedo created by John and Frederick Harvey. Matthew F. Maury worked on an electric torpedo design during the American Civil War, but the result wasn't an effective weapon. The first prototypes of a self-propelled torpedo were created by Ivan Lupis-Vukić, a retired Croatian naval engineer who served in the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The design was presented to the Emperor Franz Joseph in the port city of Rijeka in 1860. Robert Whitehead, an English engineer/entrepreneur, was working in the Trieste port on navy projects, so in 1864 Lupis made a contract with him in order to perfect the invention. This resulted in Minenschiff, the first self-propelled torpedo, officially presented to the Imperial Naval commission on December 21, 1866. After the government decided to invest in the invention, Whitehead started the first torpedo factory in Rijeka. In 1870, they improved the devices to travel up to 1,000 yards (914 m) at a speed of up to six knots, and by 1881 the factory was exporting its torpedoes to ten other countries. The torpedo was powered by compressed air and had an explosive charge of gloxyline or gun-cotton. Whitehead went on to develop more efficient devices, demonstrating torpedoes capable of 18 knots (1876), 24 knots (1886) and finally 30 knots (1890). Whitehead purchased rights to the gyroscope in 1890 to improve self-regulation of his designs. Whitehead's torpedoes came to be called the Devil's device. In 1877 the British Admiralty paid him £15,000 for certain of his developments and he opened a new factory near Portland harbour in 1891. The largest Whitehead torpedo was an 18 inch (457mm) model, 19 feet (5.8 m) long, made of polished steel or phosphor-bronze, with a 200 lb (90 kg) gun-cotton warhead. The air was compressed to around 1,300 lb/in² (approx 90 atmospheres) and drove two propellers through a three cylinder Brotherhood engine. Considerable effort was taken in trying to ensure that the torpedo self-regulated its course and depth. On 16 January 1877, Turkish steamer Intibah became the first vessel to be sunk by torpedoes, launched from torpedo boats operating from the tender Velikiy Knyaz Konstantin under the command of Stepan Osipovich Makarov during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In another early use of the torpedo, Blanco Encalada was sunk by a torpedo from the gunboat Almirante Lynch, during the Chilean Civil War on April 23 1891. By this time, the torpedo boat had gained recognition for its efficiency, and the first torpedo boat destroyers were built to counter it. Torpedoes were also used to equip gunboats making them torpedo gunboats, ships of around 1,000 tons displacment. Around 1897, Nikola Tesla patented a remote controlled boat and later demonstrated the feasibility of radio-guided torpedoes to the United States military. Radio remote controlled torpedoes remained uninvestigated until the 1960s. During World War I, torpedoes came to mean self-propelled projectiles fired from a ship or submarine. Later, torpedoes were given (homing) guidance systems. In the inter-war years, tight budgets in nearly all navies caused them to skimp on testing their torpedoes. As a result, only the Japanese had fully-tested torpedoes at the start of the Second World War. All classes of ship from destroyers to battleships were armed with torpedoes. The strategic thinking of all major navies was, enemy capital ships (warships) would be the primary targets of submarines, in a classic fleet action on the high seas. This was in keeping with the theory of Alfred Thayer Mahan, dominant in naval thinking at that time. Targeting enemy merchant shipping was prohibited by rules of war. Due to the heavy armor of enemy warships, there was concern torpedoes would be ineffective. The potential solution to this was a magnetic exploder which would cause the torpedoes to detonate beneath a ship, breaking its back. This had been demonstrated by magnetic influence mines in World War One. (In principle, this was correct; modern torpedoes function in this manner. An explosion below a ship causes the formation of a gas bubble, and the unsupported hull splits and falls into it.) This requires the torpedo be set to run beneath the ship, and the magnetic exploder to activate at the correct time. Germany, Britain, and the U.S. had independently devised ways to do this; German and American torpedoes, however, suffered problems with their depth-keeping mechanisms, coupled with faults in magnetic pistols shared by all designs. Inadequate testing had failed to reveal the effect of earth's magnetic field on ships and exploder mechanisms, which resulted in premature detonation, while underruns produced duds, and concealed flaws. Kriegsmarine responded promptly in isolating and eliminating the problems. RN cleared up their faults as well. In the USN there was an extended wrangle over the issue. One design flaw had concealed another. Cursory trials had allowed bad designs to enter service. Turf protection in both the Navy and Congress prevented the mistakes being corrected. It was twenty months into the Pacific War before fully-functioning torpedoes were issued. It is no exaggeration to say this added months to the duration of the war.

Propulsion

Compressed air

This first, successful, self-propelled torpedo of 1866 used compressed air as its energy source. The air was stored at pressures of up to 2.55 MPa and fed to a piston engine which turned a single propeller at about 100 rpm. It was able to travel about 180 m at an average speed of 6.5 knots. The speed and range of later models was enhanced by increasing the pressure of the stored air. In 1906 Whitehead built torpedoes which were able to travel nearly 1000m at an average speed of 35 kts. At higher pressures the cooling experienced by the air as it expanded in the engine caused icing problems (see adiabatic cooling). This was remedied by heating the air with seawater before it was fed to the engine. Unexpectedly, this increased engine performance further, because the air expanded even more after heating.

Heated torpedoes

This led to the idea of injecting a liquid fuel, like kerosene, into the air and igniting it. In this manner the air is heated up more and expands even further, and the burned propellant adds more gas to drive the engine. Construction of such heated torpedoes started around 1904.

Wet-heater

A further enhancement to this design was the use of water to cool the combustion chamber. This not only solved heating problems so that more fuel could be burnt, but it also allowed additional power to be generated by feeding the resulting steam into the engine together with the combustion products. Torpedoes with such a propulsion system became known as wet heaters while torpedoes without steam generation were, retrospectivly, called dry heaters. Most torpedoes used in World War I and World War II were wet-heaters.

Compressed oxygen

The amount of fuel that can be burnt by an torpedo engine is limited by the amount of oxygen it can carry. Since compressed air contains only about 21% of oxygen, engineers in Japan developed the Type 93 torpedo (nicknamed long lance postwar by historian Samuel E. Morison) for destroyers in the 1930s, which used pure oxygen instead of compressed air and had an unmatched performance in World War II.

Steam

A derivative of the compressed-air torpedo was the steam driven torpedo. It had to be fueled with superheated steam from the boilers of the attacking vessel prior launch. This put it at disadvantage since it can't be stored ready to use.

Wire driven

The Brennan Torpedo had two wires wound around drums inside the torpedo. A shore based steam powered winch pulled the wires which spun the drums and drove the propeller. Such systems had been in use for coastal defence of the British homeland and colonies from 1887 to 1903. Speed was about 25knts for over 2400m.

Flywheel

Another source of mechanical energy is a flywheel. The Howell torpedo in use with the US Navy of the late 1800s featured a heavy flywheel which had to be spun up before launch. It was able to travel about 750m with an average speed of 30knts. The advantage of the Howell torpedo was that it didn't leave a trail of bubbles behind it like compressed air torpedoes, giving the target less chance to detect and evade the torpedo. It also avoided giving away the attacker's position.

Electric propulsions

For the same reasons, designers pursued the development of an electric propulsion system for torpedoes. John Ericsson invented 1873 a torpedo that was cable-powered by an external source, as electric batteries of that time didn't offer enough capacity for useful range and speed figures. Germany was the first nation to field an electric torpedo shortly prior World War II, the G7e. It was slower and of shorter range than its conventional G7a counterpart, but wakeless and much cheaper to produce. On the other hand, it used a lead-acid rechargeable battery which was sensitive to shock and also required frequent maintenance and needed to be preheated for best performance before launch. To overcome these restrictions, other energy sources were researched. The experimantal G7ep, an enhancement of the G7e, used primary cells like modern electric torpedoes. Silver-oxide is the most common type of batteries in post-war electric torpedoes like the Mark 24 Tigerfish or DM2 series. Such a battery doesn't need any maintenance and a torpedo equipped with it can be shelved for years without losing much performance.

Modern propulsion systems

Modern torpedoes utilize a variety of energy sources that include monopropellant and sulphur hexafluoride gas sprayed over a block of solid lithium.

Torpedo classes and diameters

Torpedoes are launched several ways:
- From a deck-mounted "drop collar" (such as those on U.S. PT boats in WW2)
- From a torpedo tube mounted either in a trainable deck mount (common in destroyers) or fixed (above or below the waterline of a surface vessel (as in cruisers, battleships, and armed merchant cruisers), or aboard a submarine.
- From shackles aboard low-flying aircraft or helicopters.
- As the final stage of a compound rocket or ramjet powered munition (sometimes called an assisted torpedo). Many navies have two weights of torpedoes:
- A light torpedo used primarily as a close attack weapon, particularly by aircraft.
- A heavy torpedo used primarily as a standoff weapon, particularly by submerged submarines. In the case of deck or tube launched torpedoes, the diameter of the torpedo is obviously a key factor in determining the suitability of a particular torpedo to a tube or launcher, similar to the calibre of the gun. The size is not quite as critical as for a gun barrel, but diameter has become the most common way of classifying torpedoes. calibre Length, weight, and other factors also contribute to compatibility. In the case of aircraft launched torpedoes, the key factors are weight, provision of suitable attachment points, and launch speed. Assisted torpedoes are the most recent development in torpedo design, and are normally engineered as an integrated package. Versions for aircraft and assisted launching have sometimes been based on deck or tube launched versions, and there has been at least one case of a submarine torpedo tube being designed to fire an aircraft torpedo. As in all munition design, there is a compromise between standardisation, which simplifies manufacture and logistics, and specialisation, which may make the weapon significantly more effective. Small improvements in either logistics or effectiveness can translate into enormous operational advantages. Some common torpedo diameters (using the most common designation, metric or inch, and listed in increasing order of size):
- 12.75 inch (approximately 324 mm) is the most common size for light torpedoes.
- 16 inch (406 mm) was the size of the earliest specialised Soviet ASW torpedoes. 16 inch torpedo tubes were fitted to Soviet Hotel, Echo and early Delta class submarines, often in addition to 21 inch tubes.
- 17.7 inch (450 mm) was the standard size for light torpedoes of the Imperial Japanese Navy. This size is sometimes referred to as 18 inches.
- 21 inch (533 mm) is the most common size for heavy torpedoes, including:
  - Allied torpedoes of the Second World War.
  - Some torpedoes of the Imperial Japanese Navy.
  - Torpedoes of the Kriegsmarine
  - NATO torpedoes.
  - Some Soviet and Russian torpedoes, including the current ASW models.
- 24 inch (610 mm) torpedoes were used by the Imperial Japanese Navy, most famously the deck launched Type 93 torpedo, also some Kaitens.
- 650 mm (approximately 25.6 inches) is the largest torpedo diameter used by the Russian navy, see Type 65 torpedo. Adaptors are used to fire 533 mm (21 inch) munitions from 650 mm tubes. Even larger sizes of torpedo tube, including 660 mm (26 inches), 30 inch (762 mm) and 36 inch (about 914 mm), have been installed on some nuclear submarines. These tubes are designed to be capable of firing large diameter munitions such as cruise missiles, as well as the standard 21 inch heavy torpedo. See torpedo tube.

Torpedoes used by various navies

torpedo tube torpedo]] torpedo tube

US Navy

The four major torpedoes in the United States Navy inventory are:
- the Mark 48 heavyweight torpedo,
- the Mark 46 lightweight and
- the Mark 50 advanced lightweight.
- the Mark 54 torpedo.

Royal Navy

The torpedoes used by the Royal Navy include:
- Tigerfish torpedo
- Spearfish torpedo
- Stingray torpedo

Imperial Japanese Navy

The torpedoes used by the Imperial Japanese Navy (WWII) included:
- Type 91 torpedo
- Type 92 torpedo
- Type 93 torpedo
- Type 95 torpedo
- Type 97 torpedo
- Kaiten

German Navy

The torpedoes used by the Kriegsmarine include
- G7a (T1)
- G7e (T2)
- T3
- T4 (Falke)
- G7es (Zaunköning)
- T11

Russian Navy

Torpedoes used by the Russian Navy include:
- Type 53 torpedo
- Type 65 torpedo
- VA-111 Shkval torpedo

See also


- List of torpedoes
- Acoustic torpedo
- Torpedo boat
- Torpedo bomber
- Missile guidance
- Human torpedo
- Bangalore Torpedo

External links


- US Navy torpedo data cut and pasted from a [http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/weapons/wep-torp.html Navy Fact File]
- A slightly more recent writeup on the Mk-48 is available at a [http://www.welshcoast.net/clwyd/ssbn624/torpedo.htm SSBN 624 web site by Clwyd]
- Early History of the Torpedo [http://www.btinternet.com/~philipr/torps.htm Torpedo History]
- http://www.hansonclan.co.uk
- http://www.globalsecurity.org
- http://www.btinternet.com/~philipr/torps
- http://www.geocities.com/gwmccue
- http://www.geocities.com/Pentagon/1592/ustorp1
- http://navytorpedo.com
- Torpedo Category:unmanned vehicles ko:어뢰 ja:魚雷

Sources


- Blair, Clay. Silent Victory. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975.
- Milford, Frederick J. "U.S. Navy Torpedoes: Part One--Torpedoes through the Thirties". The Submarine Review, April 1996.

1866

1866 is a common year starting on Monday.

Events

January – June


- January 6 – Ottoman troops clash with men of a Maronite leader Karam in St. Doumit in Lebanon - Turks are defeated
- January 12 - Royal Aeronautical Society is formed (London)
- January 28 - 800 Maronite troops clash with Ottoman troops in Karem Saddah, modern-day Lebanon - more battles between nationalist Maronites and Ottoman army follow
- February 13 - The first daylight robbery in United States history during peacetime takes place in Liberty, Missouri. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by Jesse James and his gang, although James's role is disputed.
- February 26 - The Calaveras Skull is discovered. Purported to be evidence of humans during the Pliocene Age, it turns out to be a hoax.
- April 4 - Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for Mussorgsky's The Great Gate of Kiev from Pictures at an Exhibition.
- April 10 - The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh.
- May - Student Choen Blind fails to assassinate Otto von Bismarck in Unter den Linden in Berlin
- May 2 - Peruvian defenders fight off Spanish fleet at the Battle of Callao.
- May 16 - The U.S. Congress eliminates the half dime coin and replaces it with the five cent piece, or nickel.
- May 16 - Charles Elmer Hires invents root beer.
- May 24 - Battle of Tuyuti - 32.000 soldiers of the Triple Alliance defeat 24.000 Paraguayan soldiers few miles north of the Parana - 18.000 dead
- June 2 - Fenian forces skirmish with Canadian militia at Ridgeway and Fort Erie
- June 5 - Calculations indicate Pluto reached its most recent aphelion (furthest point from Sun) on this day. The next aphelion will occur in August 2113.
- June 8 - The Canadian Parliament meets for the first time in Ottawa.
- June 11 - Agra High Court established (later shifted to Allahabad High Court.
- June 14 - Beginning of the Austro-Prussian War, when the Austrians and most of the medium German states declare war on Prussia.
- June 20 - The Kingdom of Italy declares war on Austria.
- June 24 - At the Second Battle of Custozza, the Austrian army under Archduke Albert defeats the main Italian army, commander by King Victor Emmanuel.
- June 27-29 - The Prussians defeat the Hanoverian army at the Battle of Langensalza.

July – December


- July 3 - At the Battle of Königgratz, the Prussian army under King Wilhelm and Helmuth von Moltke defeats the Austrian army of Ludwig von Benedek, leading to a decisive Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War.
- July 5 - Marriage of Princess Helena of the United Kingdom, third daughter of Queen Victoria to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg
- July 20 - At the Naval Battle of Lissa, the Austrian fleet under Wilhelm von Tegetthoff defeats the Italian fleet of Carlo di Persano.
- July 24 - Reconstruction: Tennessee becomes the first U.S. state to be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil War.
- July 25 - The U.S. Congress passes legislation authorizing the rank of General of the Army (now called "5-star general") Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant becomes the first to have this rank.
- July 27 - The Atlantic Cable is successfully completed, allowing transatlantic telegraph communication for the first time.
- July 28 - The Metric Act of 1866 becomes law and legalizes the standardization of weights and measures in the United States.
- August 23 - Treaty of Prague ends the Austro-Prussian War
- September 22 - Paraguay successfully defends Curupaity against the Triple Alliance, scoring more than 5000 with just about 50 casualties.
- October 12 - The Treaty of Vienna ends the war between Austria and Italy. It formalizes the annexation of Venetia by Italy.
- December 21 - Fetterman's massacre - Sioux ambush and wipe out 79 cavalrymen under lieutenant colonel William J. Fetterman
- Federalist revolts in Argentina
- In Sweden the Riksdag of the Estates is replaced by an elected two chamber assembly, the Riksdag.
- Alfred Nobel invents dynamite.
- First historical mention of gerbils, "yellow rats" sent to Museum of Natural History (Musée d'Histoire Naturelle) in Paris, by father Armand David from northern China
- First use of the term Ecology

Births


- January 13 - Vasily Kalinnikov, Russian composer (d. 1901)
- January 15 - Nathan Söderblom, Swedish archbishop, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1931)
- January 29 - Romain Rolland, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1944)
- March 30 - George Van Haltren, baseball player (d. 1945)
- April 1 - Ferruccio Busoni, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1924)
- April 6 - Butch Cassidy, American outlaw (d. 1909)
- April 17 - Ernest Starling, British physiologist (d. 1927)
- May 17- Erik Satie, French composer (d. 1925)
- June 26 - George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English financier of Egyptian excavations (d. 1923)
- July 28 - Beatrix Potter, English children's author (d. 1943)
- August 12 - Jacinto Benavente, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)
- September 1 - James J. Corbett, American boxer (d. 1933)
- September 7 - Tristan Bernard, French writer (d. 1947)
- September 10 - Jeppe Aakjaer, Danish poet and novelist

Torpedo boat

A torpedo boat is a relatively small and fast naval ship designed to launch torpedoes at larger surface ships. They were created to counter battleships and other large, slow and heavily armed ship by speed and agility. During the late 1800s, the development of metal-hulled ships of large size, and the use of gyroscopes to even out the motion of waves, allowed for the rapid development of the very large gunship, which soon became known as battleships, later dreadnoughts. These were fiendishly expensive, so only the largest and richest nations could afford to continue in the race to build such ships. But at the same time, the new weight of armor slowed them, and the huge guns needed to penetrate that armor fired at very slow rates. This allowed for the possibility of a small and fast ship that could attack the battleships en-mass, at a much lower cost. The introduction of the torpedo provided a weapon that could cripple, and sink, any battleship. torpedo] In the late 19th century, many Navies started to build torpedo boats - relatively small ships, about 30 to 50 m in length, armed with up to three torpedo launchers and small guns. They were powered with steam engines and developed speed of 20 to 30 knots (37 to 56 km/h). They were relatively inexpensive and could be purchased in quantity, allowing for mass attacks on larger fleets. While some of them would undoubtedly be lost to the guns of the larger ships while they ran into firing range, their cost was so low that sinking even one battleship in return would be a victory. It is commonly acknowledged today that the very first torpedo boat was the Royal Norwegian Navy's HNoMS Rap—the name meaning 'fast'—ordered from Cheswick, England in 1873. The first recorded launch of torpedoes from a torpedo boat (which itself was launched from a tender) in an actual battle was by Russian admiral Stepan Makarov on January 16, 1877, who used self-propelled Whitehead's torpedoes against a Turkish armed ship "Intibah" during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. The introduction of the torpedo boat resulted in a flurry of activity in the fleets around the world, as smaller and faster guns were added to existing ships to ward off the new threat. Eventually an entirely new class of ships, the torpedo boat destroyer, was invented to counter them. These ships, today known simply as destroyers, were just enlarged torpedo boats, with speed equal to the torpedo boats, but including heavier guns that could attack them before they were able to close on the main fleet. Destroyers were also armed with torpedoes. Considerable effort was put into designing fleet actions that would allow the destroyers to operate far enough from the main "van" to keep the torpedo boats away, while still remaining close enough that they couldn't be "picked off" by an opposing fleet. Destroyers appeared so useful and universal ships, having better seaworthiness, than torpedo boats, that they eventually replaced most torpedo boats. Until World War II, classic torpedo boats remained only in a small number in some navies, e.g. German and French. By that time, they were ships 70 to 100 m long, armed with a 2 to 3 guns typically 100 mm (4 in) and torpedo launchers. After the war they eventually disappeared. Before the World War I, as torpedo boats were growing larger, armed with heavier guns, there appeared different class of torpedo boats, going back to their roots, being small and fast ships again. The introduction of the internal combustion engine resulted in a power source that could offer much higher output from a small source. The result was a small torpedo boat, perhaps 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 m) in length with high speed 30 to 50 knots (56 to 93 km/h), carrying 2 to 4 torpedoes, fired from simple fixed launchers, and several machine guns. Such torpedo boats remained useful until World War II, in particular the Royal Navy (RN) Motor torpedo boats (MTBs), Kriegsmarine 'S-Boote' (Schnellboot or fast-boat: British termed them E-boats) and US PT boats (standing for Patrol Torpedo) served their users well. A classic fast torpedo boat action was the Channel Dash in February 1942 when German E-boats and destroyer defended the flotilla of Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, Prinz Eugen and several smaller ships against RN MTBs. By World War II torpedo boats were seriously hampered by the higher fleet speeds, although they still had a speed advantage, they could only catch the larger ships by running at very high speeds over very short distances as demonstrated in the Channel Dash. An even greater change was the widespread arrival of patrol aircraft, which could hunt them down long before they could even see their targets. The class has not entirely disappeared, due to the arrival of the guided missile. Today a number of navies operate boats of the same general size and concept as the older torpedo boats, but armed with long-range anti-shipping missiles that can be used at ranges between 30 and 70 km. This reduces the need for high speed chases to a degree, and gives them much more room to operate in while approaching their targets. Aircraft remain a major threat, and any fleet combining air elements makes their use almost suicidal. They are still used by many navies and coast guards to police their territorial waters against smugglers, particularly those smuggling narcotics and weapons to insurgents. The interdiction and boarding of potentially armed hostile fast boats, which often are indistinguishable from legitimate coastal craft, is something which has to be done from a heavily armed fast boat, often with the assistance of maritime patrol aircraft.

See


- Drazki

See also


- Destroyer
- Offshore Patrol
- Submarine
- Fast Attack Craft
- Missile boat Category:Ship types ja:水雷艇

19th century

:Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900 in the Gregorian calendar (using the Common Era system of year numbering). Historians sometimes define a "Nineteenth Century" historical era stretching from 1815 (The Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (The outbreak of the First World War).

Europe

For Europe, the period is marked with revolution, social upheaval, and the emergence of a united conservatism from the monarchs of Europe in response to the emerging republican firestorm spreading from revolutionary France. There were many revolutions in Europe in 1848. Furthermore, the later end of the century was dominated by what many call the New Imperialism, which was the rapid aquisition of colonies worldwide by European powers, most noteworthy is the Scramble for Africa. Many countries in Europe underwent an Industrial Revolution, especially Britain and Germany, that spread elsewhere by the end of the century, with factories and railway lines built all over the continent. The start of the 19th century there was a struggle between France and Britain and their allies for control of Europe and the world during the Napoleonic Wars, with Napoleon being finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. During the rest of the century, the British empire became the largest and most powerful empire in history, during the period known as the Pax Britannica.

Americas

In the Americas, the United States slowly grew economically, militarily, and politically, but nevertheless faced dramatic changes domestically, best seen in the Civil War, the end of slavery, and the expansion across the American continent known as Manifest Destiny. Industrially, America will explode following the Civil War, and would eventually begin expansion outward across the Pacific Ocean and in Latin America.

Other countries

For the rest of the world, there were few places not influenced by the West in some fashion, whether through colonialism, imperialism, or war. European powers gained increasing influence in China, where Qing control had weakened, and wars were fought by the western powers against China, such as the first and the second Opium wars and Sino-French War. Japan, which was forcibly opened to Western trade, began a rapid industrialisation. Africa which was largely free from European control at the start of the century, was almost completely dominated by Europe at the end of it, with the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s and 1890s. Large European settlement, especially British, of colonies such as Australia, New Zealand and the Cape Colony continued during the nineteenth century.

Events


- 1801: The Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merge to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
- 1803: The United States buys out France's territorial claims in North America via the Louisiana Purchase.
- 1804-06: Americans Meriwether Lewis and William Clark lead an expedition to the Pacific Coast and back.
- 1805-48: Muhammad Ali modernizes Egypt.
- 1806: Holy Roman Empire dissolved as a consequence of the Treaty of Lunéville.
- 1809: Napoleon strips the Teutonic Knights of their last holdings in Bad Mergentheim.
- 1813-1917: The contest between the British Empire and Imperial Russia for control of Central Asia is referred to as the Great Game.
- 1815: Congress of Vienna redraws the European map.
- 1815: Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo brings a conclusion to the Napoleonic Wars and marks the beginning of a Pax Britannica which lasts until 1870.
- 1816: Year Without a Summer
- 1816-28: Shaka's Zulu kingdom becomes the largest in Southern Africa.
- 1819: The modern city of Singapore is established by the British East India Company.
- 1820: Liberia founded by the American Colonization Society for freed American slaves.
- 1830: France invades and occupies Algeria.
- 1830: The Belgian Revolution in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of Belgium.
- 1833: Slavery Abolition Act bans slavery throughout the British Empire.
- 1834: Spanish Inquisition officially ends.
- 1835-36: The Texas Revolution in Mexico resulted in the short-lived Republic of Texas.
- 1837-1901: Queen Victoria's reign is considered the apex of the British Empire and is referred to as the Victorian era.
- 1845-49: Irish Potato Famine
- 1848: The Communist Manifesto published.
- 1848: Revolutions of 1848 in Europe
- 1848-58: California Gold Rush
- 1850: The Little Ice Age ends around this time.
- 1851-60s: Victorian gold rush in Australia
- 1851-64: The Taiping Rebellion in China
- 1854: The Convention of Kanagawa formally ends Japan's policy of Sakoku.
- 1855: Bessemer process enables steel to be mass produced.
- 1856: World's first oil refinery in Romania
- 1857-58: Indian rebellion of 1857
- 1859: The Origin of Species published.
- 1864-67: French intervention in Mexico
- 1865-77: Reconstruction in the United States
- 1866: Successful transatlantic telegraph cable follows an earlier attempt in 1858.
- 1866: Creation of the North German Confederation and the Austrian-Hungarian Dual Monarchy.
- 1866-69: Meiji Restoration in Japan
- 1867: The United States purchased Alaska from Russia.
- 1867: Canadian Confederation formed.
- 1869: First Transcontinental Railroad completed in United States.
- 1869: The Suez Canal opens linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
- 1870-71: Unifications of Germany and Italy.
- 1871-1914: Second Industrial Revolution
- 1870s-90s: Long Depression in Western Europe and North America
- 1872: Yellowstone National Park created.
- 1874: The British East India Company is dissolved.
- 1877: Great Railroad Strike in the United States may have been the world's first nationwide labor strike.
- 1877-78: The Balkans are freed from the Ottoman Empire after another Russo-Turkish War.
- 1878: First commercial telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut.
- 1880-1902: Great Britain conquers Dutch settlers in South Africa in two Boer Wars.
- 1882: First electrical power plant and grid in Manhattan.
- 1884-85: The Berlin Conference signals the start of the European Scramble for Africa. Attending nations also agree to ban trade in slaves.
- 1885: Unification of Bulgaria
- 1890: The Wounded Knee Massacre is the last battle in the American Indian Wars.
- 1894-95: After the First Sino-Japanese War, China cedes Taiwan to Japan and grants Japan a free hand in Korea.
- 1895-1896: Ethiopia defeated Italy in the First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1896: Olympic games revived in Athens.
- 1896: Klondike Gold Rush in Canada
- 1898: The United States gains control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.
- 1898-1900: The Boxer Rebellion in China is suppressed by an Eight-Nation Alliance.

Wars

List of wars 1800–1899
- 1799-1815: Napoleonic Wars.
- 1801-15: Barbary Wars between the United States and the Barbary States of North Africa.
- 1806-12: Russo-Turkish War
- 1810-21: Mexican War of Independence.
- 1810s-20s: South American Wars of Independence.
- 1812-15: War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain.
- 1821-32: Greek War of Independence.
- 1828-29: Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829
- 1833-76: Carlist Wars in Spain.
- 1839-60: After two Opium Wars, Great Britain, France, the United States and Russia gain many concessions from China.
- 1854-56: Crimean War between Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Russia.
- 1861-65: American Civil War between the Union and seceding Confederacy.
- 1866: Austro-Prussian War.
- 1877-78: Russo-Turkish War.
- 1879: Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa.
- 1879-84: War of the Pacific between Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
- 1880-81: First Boer War.
- 1894-95: First Sino-Japanese War.
- 1895-96: First Italo-Abyssinian War.
- 1899-13: The Philippine-American War.

Significant people


- Gilbert and Sullivan, playwright, composer
- William Gilbert Grace, English cricketer
- Baron Haussmann, civic planner
- Sándor Körösi Csoma, explorer of the Tibetan culture
- Fitz Hugh Ludlow, writer and explorer
- Florence Nightingale, nursing pioneer
- Ignaz Semmelweis, founder of hygiene
- Dr. John Snow, the founder of epidemiology
- F R Spofforth, Australian cricketer

Anthropology


- Franz Boas
- Edward Burnett Tylor
-